Gloucester Waterways Museum
Index> Waterways Background

1.1  Britain's Inland Waterways

The Canal Age
     Early schemes to develop inland water transport in Britain were mainly concerned with improving the navigation of rivers by the building of locks and the digging of new channels or 'cuts' to by-pass meandering river courses. By the mid-18th century, trade was expanding and money became available for more adventurous schemes. Francis Egerton, Duke of Bridgewater, hired millwright James Brindley (right) to cut a new waterway from his coal mines at Worsley to Manchester. This marked the beginning of the major period of canal building in England.
     Opinion was divided about the merits of the new canals. Among those who expressed concern were the landowners across whose land a waterway would be cut, who feared the ruin of the view from their homes and a change in their way of life. Agents of the various private canal schemes would visit landowners and offer incentives to persuade them to buy company shares and to sell parts of their land. Ordinary folk also had mixed feelings. Some feared the canal-digging 'navvies', about whom they had heard terrible tales, or saw the canals as a means for the rich to become richer. Others were more positive and planned how they might use the waterways to improve their way of life. For example, some localised industries would now be able to offer their goods to a wider market. One thing was certain: the countryside would never be the same again.

Canal Mania
     Most of the early canals were very successful and paid large dividends to their shareholders. This led to what was known as the ‘canal mania’ in the 1790s, when investors clamoured to put money into new schemes which they thought would make their fortunes. Unfortunately, many of these ‘mania’ schemes came to nothing, but others prospered and canals became big business. At first, most traffic was localised, but as more canals were built and became inter-connected, boats travelled further afield and carried a greater variety of goods. The early canals had tended to follow contour lines around hills, but later schemes tried to follow straighter paths, requiring more engineering structures. By the middle of the nineteenth century, 4000 miles of canal and river navigations were in operation and 40,000 people were involved. The canals provided a transport system vital to the new businesses of the industrial revolution, taking raw materials to the factories and carrying away the finished goods for distribution.  

Railway Competition
     The coming of the railways (from 1830) had a considerable effect upon the prosperity of canal companies. Once railways had actually proved their viability, they attracted new investment as they could offer better returns on capital than the canal companies. In many places canals and railways co­existed, but sometimes a canal company was bought by the railway company and some canals were even filled in to take a rail track. Many canal companies continued independently but, as the rail network grew, passengers and perishable goods traffic together with many bulk cargoes gradually transferred from the canals to the railways.
     Narrow canals suffered most from rail competition. The broad canals proved to be more suitable for further investment. They took larger boats, had fewer engineering problems and provided good links to the northern seaports. It was, however, often necessary for the owners to cut their tolls to remain in competition with the railways.

Bridges
        One of the delights of the canal network is the great variety of structures designed by the early engineers that are still in use today. Thousands of bridges were needed to carry existing rights of way over the new canals. These come in all shapes and sizes, most being fixed but some needing to be opened to let a boat pass through.

Locks and Lifts
     To take a canal up or down hill usually required the construction of locks, most having walls built of brick or stone and wooden gates at each end. Every time a lock is used, water flows downhill, the quantity depending on the size of the lock chamber. Where the supply of water to the summit level of the canal was limited, it was usual to build narrow locks that could only take boats up to 7 feet wide and 70 feet long. Where there was a good water supply, it was possible to have wider locks, typically suiting barges up to 14 feet wide and 80 feet long. For a very steep change in level, an alternative was to build a boat lift or inclined plane.

Embankments and Aqueducts
        Where a shallow valley needed to be crossed, it was common to build an embankment to avoid the need for locks on either side of the valley. Where a valley had steep sides, there was the option of constructing an aqueduct, a prime example being the magnificent Pontcysyllte Aqueduct on the Llangollen Canal (over 300 metres long and 36 metres above the bottom of the valley it crosses, with a massive embankment at either end).

Cuttings and Tunnels
        Where a small hill had to be crossed, it was common to dig a cutting through it, but for a high ridge there was the option of excavating a tunnel. Early tunnels were often surveyed by using two high points from which to make sightings. Shafts were dug along the line to depths calculated by the engineer, and the main tunnel was dug from the bottom of each shaft in the direction of the next one. The first canal tunnels were built without towing paths which meant that a member of the crew had to walk with the horse over the top of the tunnel while the boat was taken through it. Later tunnels were built with towpaths.

Reservoirs
        A guaranteed supply of water to the summit level is vital for canal operation, and many canal companies built reservoirs to maintain a ready source even in the driest weather. A reservoir is often at some distance from the canal, and water is fed to the navigation through a feeder channel. Other sources of water include extraction from a local river and pumping from a nearby mine.

Canal Administration
        Each of the many canal companies was run by paid staff answerable to a committee of shareholders. The clerk and his staff were responsible for arranging for the collection of tolls from passing boats, depending on the amount and type of cargo carried and the distance travelled. To assess the weight being carried in a boat, it was usual to measure how much of the hull was showing above the water and to consult a ‘gauging book’ which gave the corresponding weight determined in a previous test. The clerk was also responsible for matters concerning property, the collection of tolls for landing goods on the company’s wharfs, the payment of wages and the preparation of reports to shareholders.

Canal Maintenance
     The engineer and his staff were responsible for keeping the canal in good working order. Minor jobs were carried out by lengthsmen who lived in company cottages at strategic places along the route. It was their job to keep the lock paddle gear well lubricated and to keep any opening bridges in good condition. They cut the towpath grass and trimmed the hedges, and they inspected culverts and embankments to get early warning of any problems. Spotting and stopping a small dribble through the side of an embankment could avoid the development of a major breach that  might drain the canal and flood the surrounding land.
     For major maintenance work, such as replacing lock gates or repairing  bridges after damage by passing boats, the engineer could call on specialist craftsmen such as carpenters, blacksmiths and brick layers. They were usually based at a maintenance yard where there were facilities such as a workshop, forge and saw-pit, but they also travelled to any site where their services were required. The engineer could also call upon a diver to inspect underwater structures and to carry out simple repairs. Major underwater work could require the draining of a whole pound. Dredging was usually done from a boat, using a ‘spoon’ on the end of a long pole to scoop up mud and tip it into the boat for later disposal. Some larger canals had steam-powered bucket dredgers.

Ice
     During the winter, ice on the canal could became so thick that it prevented the movement of boats. Then it was time to deploy the ice boat, which was of strong construction with a rounded bottom. When this was pulled by a team of horses and rocked back and forth by a gang of men, it could force a passage through moderate ice and so allow cargo boats to move again.

Narrow Boats
     Narrow canals were built to be used by narrow boats (known as longboats in Gloucester) that were 7 feet wide and 70 feet long. Most had a cabin at the stern providing living and sleeping accommodation for the crew, and some also had a small cabin at the bow. Day boats were used for short journeys and only had a simple shelter at the stern. Initially, boats were made of wood at many small yards all over the country. As the technology of iron production improved, it became common to use large iron plates for the sides and wood for the bottoms. Later, complete hulls were made of steel which is stronger, allowing thinner plates to be used, making the boats lighter and so able to carry more cargo.

Barges
     Wide canals were built to suit the sailing barges in use on local rivers, such as the Severn trow (pronounced to rhyme with crow), the Mersey flat, the Humber keel and the Western Barge on the River Thames. Special barges also evolved to suit the trade on particular canals. All these varied greatly in size, typically 12 to 15 feet wide and 60 to 80 feet long, and all had living accommodation for the crew. As for the narrow boats, barges were initially made of wood and later of iron or steel.

Moving a Boat
     The boats and barges of the early river navigations were moved along by the current or tide, by sail or by a gang of men on the bank. These men, known as bowhauliers, developed a reputation for dishonesty and violence. Later, proper towing paths were created, allowing horses to be used for towing, and this was the usual practice on the new canals. A single horse could easily pull a boat carrying 30 tons at about two miles an hour or even a barge loaded with 60 tons. In some cases, a pair of donkeys might be used instead of a horse. Some canal boats, known as 'fly’ boats, were kept moving day and night by changing horses regularly and by the crew working in shifts and sleeping on the move.

Engines
     Steam engines were fitted in some boats, but their large size reduced the space available for cargo, and they were only economic where it was practical for them to tow an un-powered 'butty’. Around the beginning of the twentieth century, canal boats began to be fitted with 'crude oil' engines. These were safer than petrol engines and more suitable because they could be run more slowly and could be connected directly to the propeller. Early oil engines were mostly semi-diesel engines which had to be started by heating the 'hot bulb' (part of the cylinder head) with a blow lamp. Bolinder engines became popular because, although the only means of reversing was to stop the engine and start it backwards, they were simple, easy to maintain and had a long life. Barges were fitted with larger engines, including those of the full-diesel type.

Cargoes and Trade Routes
     The cargoes carried on canals and rivers were as diverse as Britain's industries. Many canals were built to serve specific industries and for short distance haulage of coal or other raw materials from mine to factory. The waterways connected to the major ports carried Britain's exports to the coast and brought imported raw materials inland.

Scotland and the North of England
     Scotland's major canals were built across the country to link the western and eastern coasts, providing a route which was safer and shorter than the sea passage around the northern coast.
     In the north-east of England, the waterways developed as a network linked to the wide rivers Aire, Calder, Ouse and Trent. As a result of these excellent links, coal was easily transported to factories and to ports, and towns like Leeds and Wakefield grew as manufacturing centres.
     In the north-west, canal links to the River Mersey were established, allowing many raw materials to be imported through Liverpool and distributed inland. The mills of Lancashire were supplied with coal and cotton via the canal network. Salt works on the River Weaver could be economically supplied with Wigan's coal to dry the salt. Industry in the Potteries received china clay and flint by canal via Weston Point at Runcorn.

Midlands and the South
     Midland canals at first linked local industries with their raw materials, but it was not long before long distance links were also built to the major ports. Even in the Railway Age, the canals around Birmingham prospered as they served canalside industries which never had railway connections. In later years, railway/canal interchange basins were built, allowing goods brought to the Midlands by rail to be delivered to their final destination by canal.
     The focus of the south-eastern canal network was London, from where imported goods were widely distributed by way of the River Thames and the Grand Union Canal which linked to the Midlands.   
     The River Severn was an important route to and from the south-west of England. In South Wales, canals linked the valleys with the seaports. Devon and Cornwall's canals connected agricultural areas with small ports.

Passenger Boats
    Canals were used not only for the transport of goods but also for ferrying passengers and for the occasional pleasure trip. The first passenger packet boats operated from Warrington to Manchester and later became part of a through route from Liverpool to Manchester via Runcorn. The boats averaged four to six miles an hour and had right of way over cargo boats on the canal. One particular boat, 'Duchess Countess', carried a large curved knife with which to sever the towline or any boat which got in its way! Passenger routes developed throughout the country over both long and short distances.

Twentieth Century
     During the First World War, many boatmen joined the armed forces.  Some returned to the boats afterwards, but many found better paid work away from the canals. Army surplus motor lorries took away a great deal of the short distance carrying from the narrow canals. In the 1920s and 30s, efforts were made to win back trade to the canals by a greater use of motor boats. Locks on the Grand Union Canal were widened to allow motor boats and butty boats to fit side-by-side. However, trade continued to decline.
     In 1948, waterways became part of the nationalised transport industry, and investment was concentrated on the wider rivers and canals. Trade was gradually lost, however, as new industries opened away from the banks of the waterways. Some carrying on the narrow canals continued until the early 1960s, but motor boats often had to be worked single-handed for economy. Even this traffic stopped after the bad winter of 1962-3 in the face of increasing competition from road transport on the new motorway system. Some cargo is still carried on the broad canals and rivers, but narrow canals are now mainly used by pleasure craft owned or hired by those who have discovered the fascination of the inland waterways.

This note is based on the text of the original Museum guide book.

For Index to Museum Notes, see www.gloucesterdocks.me.uk/museumnotes